• • • Islam ( ) is an religion teaching that there is only () and that is a of God. It is the and the, with over 1.8 billion followers or 24.1% of the global population, known as.

Muslims make up a majority of the population in. Islam teaches that is,, and has guided mankind through, and. The primary scriptures of Islam are the, viewed by Muslims as the word of God, and the teachings and normative example (called the, composed of accounts called ) of Muhammad ( 570–8 June 632 CE). Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a that was revealed many times before through prophets including,, and. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered and final revelation of God. Like other, Islam also teaches a final judgment with the righteous rewarded and unrighteous punished in. Religious concepts and practices include the, which are obligatory acts of worship, and following, which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, from and to and the.

The cities of, and are home to. Apart from the theological viewpoint, Islam is historically believed to have originated in the early 7th century in Mecca, and by the 8th century the extended from in the west to the in the east. The refers to the period traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century, during the, when much of the historically was experiencing a, and cultural flourishing. The of the involved various and, traders and by ( ). Most Muslims are of one of two: (75–90%) or (10–20%). About 13% of Muslims live in, the largest Muslim-majority country, 31% in, the largest population of Muslims in the world, 23% in the -, where it is the dominant religion and 15% in. Sizeable are also found in the, the,,, the, the, and.

The in is the and destination of pilgrimage for Islam (: الإسلام‎, IPA: ( )) is a verbal noun originating from the which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness, and peace. In a religious context it means 'voluntary submission to God'. Is the verbal noun of of the root, and means 'submission' or 'surrender'., the word for an adherent of Islam, is the of the same verb form, and means 'one who submits' or 'one who surrenders'. The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal state: 'Whomsoever God desires to guide, He opens his heart to Islam.'

Other verses connect Islām and (usually translated as 'religion'): 'Today, I have perfected your religion ( dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion.' Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.

Bernard Lewis - Europe and Islam.pdf - Download as PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read online.

In the, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes (faith), and (excellence). Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in societies.

This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims' religion, parallel to Jesus Christ in Christianity. Some authors, however, continue to use the term Muhammadanism as a for the religious system as opposed to the concept of Islam that exists within that system. Articles of faith. Medallion showing the word ' (God) in,, Turkey. Islam is often seen as having the simplest doctrines of the major religions. Its most fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called (: توحيد‎). God is described in chapter 112 of the Quran as: 'Say, He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him' ().

Muslims repudiate and, called, and reject the Christian doctrine of the and divinity of. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not expected to visualize God. God is described and referred to by certain names or attributes, the most common being Al-Rahmān, meaning 'The Compassionate' and Al-Rahīm, meaning 'The Merciful' (See ). Muslims believe that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God's sheer command, 'Be' and so it is,' and that the is to worship God. He is viewed as a personal god who responds whenever a person in need or distress calls him. There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God who states, 'I am nearer to him than (his).' God consciousness is referred to as.

Is the term with no or used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews to reference God, while (: إله‎) is the term used for a deity or a god in general. Other non-Arab Muslims might use different names as much as Allah, for instance 'Tanrı' in, 'Khodā' in or Ḵẖudā in. The first of the Quran,, consisting of seven verses. The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were dictated by God to various prophets.

Believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the () and the (), had become —either in interpretation, in text, or both. The (literally, 'Reading' or 'Recitation') is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal word of God and is widely regarded as the finest work in the.

Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to by God through the ( Jibrīl) on many occasions between 610 CE until his death on June 8, 632. While Muhammad was alive, all of these revelations were written down by his companions ( ), although the prime method of transmission was orally through. The Quran is divided into 114, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community. The Quran is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the 'sourcebook of Islamic principles and values'. Muslim jurists consult the hadith ('reports'), or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation.

The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as. The set of rules governing proper pronunciation is called. Muslims usually view 'the Quran' as the original scripture as revealed in Arabic and that any translations are necessarily deficient, which are regarded only as commentaries on the Quran. Prophets and sunnah. The Arabic word for prophets preceded by the honorific 'peace be upon them'. Muslims identify the prophets of Islam (: أنۢبياء‎ anbiyāʾ ) as those humans chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Quran, the prophets were instructed by God to bring the 'will of God' to the peoples of the nations.

Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Says that all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of God. The Quran mentions the names of numerous figures considered, including,,, and, among others. Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad as the last law bearing prophet ( ) to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God).

In Islam, the 'normative' example of Muhammad's life is called the (literally 'trodden path'). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives and the Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran. This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as verbatim words of God quoted by Muhammad but is not part of the Quran.

A hadith involves two elements- a chain of narrators, called, and the actual wording, called. Hadiths can be classified, by studying the narration, as 'authentic' or 'correct', called (: صَحِيْح‎), 'good', called (: حَسَن‎) or 'weak', called (: ضَعِيْف‎) among others.

Collected over 300,000 hadith, but only included 2,602 distinct hadith that passed the tests that codified them as authentic into his book, which is considered by Sunnis to be the most source after the Quran. Another famous source(s) of hadiths is known as, which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference. Resurrection and judgment. Main article: Belief in the 'Day of Resurrection', (: يوم القيامة‎) is also crucial for Muslims.

They believe the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Quran and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of. The Quran emphasizes, a break from the understanding of death. On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all mankind will be judged on their good and bad deeds and consigned to (paradise) or (hell). The Qurʼan in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as, 'So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it (99:7) and whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it (99:8).'

The Qurʼan that can condemn a person to, such as in God (: كفر‎ kufr), and dishonesty; however, the Qurʼan makes it clear God will forgive the of those who repent if he so wills. Good deeds, such as charity, prayer and compassion towards animals, will be rewarded with entry to heaven.

Muslims view as a place of joy and blessings, with Qurʼanic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God. Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (: يوم الدين‎), 'Day of Religion'; as-sāʿah (: الساعة‎), 'the Last Hour'; and al-Qāriʿah (: القارعة‎), 'The Clatterer'. Describing is often known as.

The (prophesied redeemer) will be sent and with the help of, will battle. They will triumph, liberating Islam from cruelty, and this will be followed by a time of serenity with people living true to religious values.

See also: There are five basic religious acts in Islam, collectively known as 'The Pillars of Islam' ( arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din, 'pillars of religion'), which are considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the creed (), (2) daily prayers (), (3) almsgiving (), (4) fasting during, and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca () at least once in a lifetime. Both and sects agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts. Apart from these, Muslims also perform other religious acts. Notable among them are charity () and.

Silver coin of the with inscriptions of the Islamic declaration of faith The, which is the basic of Islam that must be recited under with the specific statement: ' 'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh', or 'I testify that there is no god but, Muhammad is the messenger of God.' This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to are required to recite the creed. Muslim men during prayer in the,. Ritual prayers are called Ṣalāh or Ṣalāt (: ).

Salat is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and. Performing prayers five times a day is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the, and consist of verses from the Quran. The prayers are done with the chest in direction of the though in the early days of Islam, they were done in direction of. The act of supplicating is referred to as.

A mosque is a for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. A large mosque for gathering for Friday prayers or Eid prayers are called. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the as a place to meet and study. In Medina,, or the Prophet's Mosque, was also a place of refuge for the poor. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as. Main articles: and 'Zakāt' (: زكاة‎ zakāh ') is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy and for those employed to collect Zakat; also, for bringing hearts together, freeing captives, for those in debt (or ) and for the (stranded) traveller.

It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a 'trust from God's bounty'. Conservative estimates of annual zakat is estimated to be 15 times global humanitarian aid contributions. The amount of zakat to be paid on (e.g. Money) is 2.5% (1/40) per year, for people who are not poor. Means optional charity which is practiced as religious duty and out of generosity. Both the Quran and the hadith have put much emphasis on spending money for the welfare of needy people, and have urged the Muslims to give more as an act of optional charity.

The Quran says: Spend something (in charity) out of the substance which We have bestowed on you, before Death should come to any of you (). One of the early teachings of Muhammad was that expects men to be generous with their wealth and not to be miserly (Quran ). Accumulating wealth without spending it to address the needs of the poor is generally prohibited and admonished. Another kind of charity in Islam is which means perpetual religious endowment. Further information: Fasting (: صوم‎ ṣawm) from food and drink, among other things, must be performed from dawn to dusk during the month of. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy.

Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly. Pilgrims at the in during The obligatory Islamic, called the ḥajj (: حج‎), has to be performed during the of in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Men reading the Quran in a mosque Muslims recite and memorize the whole or part of the Quran as acts of virtue.

Has been described as an excellent act of worship. Pious Muslims recite the whole Quran at the month of. In Islamic societies, any social program generally begins with the recitation of the Quran. One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a who, it is said, will be able to intercede for ten people on the Last Judgment Day.

Apart from this, almost every Muslim memorizes some portion of the Quran because they need to recite it during their prayers. Main articles: and Sharia is the forming part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the and the.

In, the term sharīʿah refers to God's divine law and is contrasted with, which refers to its scholarly interpretations. The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists. Traditional recognizes four: the Quran, (authentic hadith), (analogical reasoning), and (juridical consensus). Different developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as.

Distinguishes two principal branches of law, (rituals) and (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics. Its rulings assign actions to one of:,,,, and. Thus, some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God's will. Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists (). Their legal opinions () were taken into account by ruler-appointed who presided over 's courts, and by maẓālim courts, which were controlled by the ruler's council and administered criminal law.

In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models. While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in (family) laws. Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence. The of the late 20th century brought along calls by movements for full implementation of sharia. The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world.

There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights,, and. Teaches the in, (1850s, lithograph by ) Islam, like Judaism, has no clergy in the sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. However, there are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam. In the broadest sense, the term ulema (: علماء‎) is used to describe the body of Muslim scholars who have completed several years of training and study of. A jurist who interprets Islamic law is called a (: مفتي‎) and often issues judicial opinions, called.

A scholar of jurisprudence is called a (: فقيه‎). Someone who studies the science of hadith is called a.

A is a judge in an Islamic court. Titles given to scholars include, and. (: إمام‎) is a leadership position, often used in the context of conducting Islamic worship services. Schools of jurisprudence. The main Islamic (schools of law) of Muslim countries or distributions A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a madhab (: مذهب‎). The four major Sunni schools are the,,, and sometimes while the two major Shia schools are and.

Each differ in their methodology, called. The following of decisions by a religious expert without necessarily examining the decision's reasoning is called. The term ghair muqallid literally refers to those who do not use taqlid and by extension do not have a.

The practice of an individual interpretating law with independent reasoning is called. Main article: To reduce the gap between the rich and the poor, encourages trade, discourages the hoarding of wealth and outlaws interest-bearing loans (; the term is in ). Therefore, wealth is taxed through, but trade is not taxed., which allows the rich to get richer without sharing in the risk, is forbidden in Islam. Profit sharing and venture capital where the lender is also exposed to risk is acceptable. Hoarding of food for speculation is also discouraged. Grabbing other people's land is also prohibited. The prohibition of has resulted in the development of.

During the time of Muhammad, any money that went to the state, was immediately used to help the poor. Then in 634, formally established the welfare state. The or the welfare state was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The ran for hundreds of years under the in the 7th century and continued through the period and well into the era.

Umar also introduced Child Benefit and Pensions for the children and the elderly. Main articles:,, and Jihad means 'to strive or struggle' (in the way of God). Jihad, in its broadest sense, is 'exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of '. Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the, and aspects of one's own self (such as sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined. Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect. Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.

Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and, distinguish between the 'greater jihad', which pertains to spiritual, and the 'lesser jihad', defined as warfare. Within, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-believer/non-Muslim combatants.

Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels,, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims. Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare. Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a. For most, can only be declared by a of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since 's occultation in 868 AD. Society Family life. The dome of the in,, topped by the In a Muslim family, the birth of a child is attended with some religious ceremonies.

Immediately after the birth, the words of is pronounced in the right ear of the child. In the seventh day, the aquiqa ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor. The head of the child is also shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of the child's hair is donated to the poor. Apart from fulfilling the basic needs of food, shelter, and education, the parents or the elderly members of family also undertake the task of teaching moral qualities, religious knowledge, and religious practices to the children., which serves as the foundation of a Muslim family, is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses.

The groom is required to pay a bridal gift ( ) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract. Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous., a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands is prohibited in Islam. However, men are allowed to practice, that is, they can have more than one wife at the same time, up to a total of four, per 4 Verse 3. A man does not need approval of his first wife for a second marriage as there is no evidence in the Qur'an or hadith to suggest this.

The testimony of a woman is deemed in Islam to be worth half that of a man. With Muslims coming from diverse backgrounds including 49 Muslim-majority countries, plus a strong presence as large minorities throughout the world there are many variations on Muslim Weddings. Generally in a Muslim family, a woman's sphere of operation is the home and a man's corresponding sphere is the outside world.

However, in practice, this separation is not as rigid as it appears. With regard to inheritance, a son's share is double that of a daughter's. Certain religious rites are performed during and after the. Those near a dying man encourage him to pronounce the as Muslims want their last word to be their profession of faith. After the death, the body is bathed properly by the members of the same gender and then enshrouded in a threefold white garment called kafan. Placing the body on a, it is first taken to a mosque where funeral prayer is offered for the dead person, and then to the graveyard for burial.

Etiquette and diet. Main articles: and Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with ' ' ('peace be unto you'), saying ('in ') before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Is also practiced in Islam. Include saying the ('funeral prayer') over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a.

Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood,, and.

All meat must come from a animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as food. Social responsibilities.

Main article: In a Muslim society, various social service activities are performed by the members of the community. As these activities are instructed by, a Muslim's religious life is seen incomplete if not attended by service to humanity. In fact, In Islamic tradition, the idea of social welfare has been presented as one of its principal values. The verse of the Quran is often cited to encapsulate the Islamic idea of social welfare. Similarly, duties to parents, neighbors, relatives, sick people, the old, and have been defined in Islam.

Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age have been made a religious obligation. A two-fold approach is generally prescribed with regard to duty to: keeping good relations with them, and offering them financial help if necessary. Severing ties with them has been admonished. Regardless of a neighbor's religious identity, Islam teaches Muslims to treat in the best possible manner and not to cause them any difficulty. Concerning, the Quran forbids harsh and oppressive treatment to them while urging kindness and justice towards them. It also rebukes those who do not honor and feed orphaned children (Quran ). Main article: The Quran and the of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, and religious life.

Proper moral conduct, good deeds, righteousness, and come within the sphere of the moral guidelines. In Islam, the observance of moral virtues is always associated with religious significance because it elevates the religious status of a and is often seen as a supererogatory act of worshipping. One typical Islamic teaching on is that imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is permissible and just; but forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded the highest excellence. The Quran says: 'Repel (evil) with what is best' (). Thus, a Muslim is expected to act only in good manners as bad manners and deeds earn vices. The fundamental moral qualities in Islam are,, righteousness, kindness, honesty, and piety.

Other mostly insisted moral virtues include but not limited to charitable activities, fulfillment of promise, and, decency in speech, tolerance, trustworthiness,, truthfulness,, and sincerity of intention. As a religion, Islam emphasizes the idea of having a good character as Muhammad said: 'The best among you are those who have the best manners and character' (, ). In Islam, justice is not only a moral virtue but also an obligation to be fulfilled under all circumstances. The Quran and the hadith describe God as being kind and merciful to His creatures, and tell people to be kind likewise. As a virtue, forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam, and is regarded as an important Muslim practice. About modesty, Muhammad is reported as saying: ' Every religion has its characteristic, and the characteristic of Islam is modesty'. Built by; completed at the end of the.

With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community., a companion and close friend of Muhammad, was made the first. Under Abu Bakr, Muslims put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the, or 'Wars of Apostasy'.

The Quran was compiled into a single volume at this time. Abu Bakr's death in 634 resulted in the succession of as the caliph, followed by, and. The first four caliphs are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ('). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into the parts of the and territories.

When Umar was assassinated by Persians in 644, as successor was met with increasing opposition. The standard copies of the Quran were also distributed throughout the Islamic State. Download Horror Tiles Rpg Maker Vx Ace Sprites more. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and assumed the position of caliph.

This led to the (the 'First Fitna') over who should be caliph. Ali was assassinated by in 661. To avoid further fighting, the new caliph signed a, abdicating to, beginning the, in return that he not name his own successor. These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community.

The majority accepted the legitimacy of the first four leaders, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that only Ali and some of his descendants should rule; they became known as the Shia. Mu'awiyah appointed his son,, as successor and after Mu'awiyah's death in 680, the ' broke out, where was killed at the, a significant event in Shia Islam.

The Umayyad dynasty conquered the, the, and. Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests. The generation after the death of Muhammad but contemporaries of his companions are known as the, followed by the.

The Caliph set up the influential committee, ', headed. Wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the, as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle rallied discontented non-Arab converts ( ), poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them, inaugurating the in 750. Classical era (750–1258). The eye, according to from a manuscript dated circa 1200. This era is sometimes called the '.

Established during this time (called hospitals), are considered 'the first hospitals' in the modern sense of the word, and issued the first medical diplomas to license. The recognizes the, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university. The doctorate is argued to date back to the in Muslim. Standards of experimental and techniques, as well as the tradition of citation, were introduced.

An important pioneer in this, is regarded as the father of the modern and often referred to as the 'world's first true scientist'. The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today. It is argued that the data used by for his conclusions was gathered and that proposed a theory of. Wrote some of the finest Persian poetry and is still one of the best selling poets in America. Legal institutions introduced include the and ().

Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith. During the early Abbasid era, the major were compiled by scholars such as and while major by scholars such as and were also compiled. The was formed from the teachings of while the four Sunni, the,, and, were established around the teachings of,, and respectively. In the 9th century, al-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence in his book ar-Risālah. And completed the most commonly cited commentaries on the Quran, the in the 9th century and the in the 14th century, respectively. Philosophers and sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like argued against them and ultimately prevailed.

Caliphs such as and made the philosophy an official creed and imposed it upon Muslims to follow. Mu'tazila was a Greek influenced school of speculative theology called, which refers to. Many orthodox Muslims rejected doctrines and condemned their idea of the creation of the Quran. In inquisitions, Imam Hanbal refused to conform and was tortured and sent to an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months. The other branch of kalam was the school founded.

Some Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility and avoidance of based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as would inspire a movement that would evolve into Tasawwuf (Sufism). Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely because of efforts to legitimize and reorganize the movement by, who developed the model of the —a community of spiritual teachers and students. The first Muslims states independent of a unified Muslim state emerged from the Berber Revolt (739/740-743). In 930, the Ismaili group known as the unsuccessfully rebelled against the Abbassids, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, which was eventually retrieved. The put an end to the Abbassid dynasty in 1258.

Pre-Modern era (1258–20th century). Was the last Caliph of Islam from the. Islam spread with Muslim trade networks and Sufi orders activity that extended into, Central Asia and the. Under the, Islam spread to Southeast Europe. The Muslims in China who were descended from earlier immigration began to assimilate by adopting Chinese names and while became an important center of Islamic study.

The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially relative to the non-Muslim European powers. This decline was evident culturally; while founded an observatory in and the Jai Singh Observatory was built in the 18th century, there was not a single Muslim country with a major observatory by the twentieth century. The, launched against Muslim in, succeeded in 1492.

By the 19th century the had formally ended the Mughal dynasty in India. The after and the was abolished in 1924. The majority and oldest group among Shia at that time, the, named after the great grandson of Ali, the scholar, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis. The Shia rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of. The ensuing mandatory for the largely Sunni population also ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shiism over the and sects., who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Shiism by calling it the Jaafari Madh'hab. A revival movement during this period was an 18th-century movement led by in today's Saudi Arabia. Referred to as, their self designation is Muwahiddun (unitarians).

Building upon earlier efforts such as those by and, the movement allegedly seeks to uphold monotheism and purify Islam of what they see as later. Their zeal against shrines led to the desecration of shrines around the world, including that of. In the 19th century, the and movements were initiated. Modern times (20th century–present). The flag of the. Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration.

Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants, from mostly India and, to the, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas. The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.

Muslim immigrants began arriving, many as and largely from former colonies, in several Western European nations since the 1960s. There are more and more new Muslim intellectuals who increasingly separate perennial Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions. Is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights.

Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and they stress the need to leave room for 'independent thought on religious matters'. Women's issues receive significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam.

Secular powers such as the Chinese closed many mosques and destroyed Qurans, and became the first country to ban the practice of every religion. About half a million Muslims were killed in by communists who, it is argued, viewed them as their primary enemy and wished to exterminate them since they stood out and worshipped their own god. In, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were banned in official buildings, as also happened in., along with his acolyte, have been credited as forerunners of the. Helped influence modern. Groups such as the advocate Islam as a comprehensive political solution, often in spite of being banned. In, replaced a regime with an. In, the Islamist has democratically been in power for about a decade, while Islamist parties did well in elections following the.

The (OIC), consisting of, was established in 1969 after the burning of the in. Piety appears to be deepening worldwide. In many places, the prevalence of the is growing increasingly common and the percentage of Muslims favoring Sharia laws has increased. With religious guidance increasingly available electronically, Muslims are able to access views that are strict enough for them rather than rely on state clerics who are often seen as stooges. It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, 'driven primarily by differences in fertility rates and the size of youth populations among the world's major religions, as well as by people switching faiths.' Perhaps as a sign of these changes, most experts agree that Islam is growing faster than any other faith in and West Africa. The largest denomination in Islam is Sunni Islam, which makes up 75%–90% of all Muslims and is arguably the world's largest religious denomination.

Sunni Muslims also go by the name Ahl as-Sunnah which means 'people of the tradition [of Muhammad]'. Sunnis believe that the first four were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him and those leaders were elected. Sunnis believe that anyone who is righteous and just could be a caliph but they have to act according to the Quran and the Hadith, the example of Muhammad and give the people their rights. The Sunnis follow the Quran and the Hadith, which are recorded in sunni traditions known as (six major books).

For legal matters derived from the Quran or the Hadith, many follow four sunni (schools of thought):,, and. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one that he or she finds agreeable. Is a movement that deemphasized sources of jurisprudence outside the quran and sunnah, such as informed opinion (ra'y). The claim to take the first three generations of Muslims, known as the, as exemplary models. In the 18th century, led a salafi movement, referred by outsiders as, in modern-day.

The is a reformist movement originating in South Asia, influenced by the Wahhabi movement. The in, Iraq is a holy site for Shia Muslims. The Shia constitute 10–20% of Islam and are its second-largest branch.

While the Sunnis believe that a Caliph should be elected by the community, Shia's believe that Muhammad appointed his son-in-law,, as his successor and only certain descendants of Ali could be Imams. As a result, they believe that was the first Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs, and. Other points of contention include certain practices viewed as the religion, such as the mourning practice of, and the cursing of figures revered by Sunnis.

However, himself disapproved of people who disapproved of his great grand father and revered Abu Bakr and. More recently, and condemned the practice. Shia Islam has several branches, the most prominent being the (the largest branch), and. Different branches accept different descendants of Ali as Imams. After the death of Imam who is considered the sixth Imam by the and the 's, the Ismailis recognized his son Isma'il ibn Jafar as his successor whereas the Twelver Shia's (Ithna Asheri) followed his other son as the seventh Imam. The consider, the uncle of Imam, as their fifth Imam, and follow a different line of succession after him.

Other smaller groups include the as well as the and. Some Shia branches label other Shia branches that do not agree with their doctrine as. Mawlānā 's tomb,, Turkey, or tasawwuf (: تصوف‎), is a - approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct. It is not a sect of Islam and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Classical Sufi scholars have focused on the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God by making use of 'intuitive and emotional faculties' that one must be trained to use. Was inspired by the ideas of piety and condemnation of worldliness preached by Muhammad and these ideas were later further developed. Traditional Sufis, such as,,,, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of.

Sufi practices such as veneration of saints have faced stiff opposition from followers of and, who have sometimes physically attacked Sufi places of worship, leading to deterioration in. The movement is a Sufi-influenced revivalist movement within with over 200 million followers, largely in South Asia. Sufism enjoyed a strong revival in central Asia and South Asia. Central Asia is considered to be a center of Sufism. Sufism has played a significant role in fighting against Tsars of Russia and Soviet colonization. Here, Sufis and their different orders are the main religious sources.

Sufism is also strong in African countries such as,,,, and. Other denominations • is an Islamic reform movement (with Sunni roots) founded by that began in in 1889 and is practiced by 10 to 20 million Muslims around the world. Ahmad claimed to have fulfilled the prophecies concerning the arrival of the 'Imam Mahdi' and the 'Promised Messiah'. • The is a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam and is a branch of and is practiced by 1.45 million Muslims around the world. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers.

• is an Islamic sect that believes in a 15th-century Mahdi, Muhammad Jaunpuri • The are Muslims who generally reject the Hadith. Non-denominational Muslims.

Main article: Non-denominational Muslims is an that has been used for and by who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific. Prominent figures who refused to identify with a particular Islamic denomination have included, and. Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as 'just Muslim', although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response. The reports that respondents self-identifying as 'just Muslim' make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identify in this way.

Derived religions Some movements, such as the, and, either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam and whether each is separate a religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial. Is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to by in the 12th century. Stems from Twelver Shia passed through while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri founded the., founded by in late fifteenth century, incorporates aspects of both Islam and.

African American Muslim movements include the, and. World Muslim population by percentage (, 2014). A comprehensive 2009 demographic study of 232 countries and territories reported that 23% of the global population, or 1.57 billion people, are Muslims. Of those, it is estimated that over 75–90% are and 10–20% are with a small minority belonging to other sects. Ea Cricket Android Mobile Games Free Download on this page.

Approximately 57 countries are, and account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide. The number of Muslims worldwide increased from 200 million in 1900 to 551 million in 1970, and tripled to 1.6 billion by 2010. The majority of Muslims live in Asia and Africa. Approximately 62% of the world's Muslims live in Asia, with over 683 million adherents in,,, and. In the Middle East, non-Arab countries such as and are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, and have the most populous Muslim communities.

Most estimates indicate that the People's Republic of China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population). However, data provided by the 's International Population Center to suggests that China has 65.3 million Muslims.

Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries, and is slowly catching up to that status in the Americas, with between 2,454,000, according to Pew Forum, and approximately 7 million Muslims, according to the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), in the United States. According to the, Islam is set to equal Christianity in number of adherents by the year 2050. Islam is set to grow faster than any other major world religion, reaching a total number of 2.76 billion (an increase of 73%).

High fertility rates play a factor, with Islam having a rate of 3.1 compared to the world average of 2.5, and the minimum replacement level for a population at 2.1. Age also plays a role in these numbers due to the fact that Islam has the highest number of adherents under the age of 15 (34% of the total religion) of any major religion (Christianity's is 27%). Sixty percent of Muslims are between the ages of 16 and 59, while only 7% are aged 60+ (the smallest percentage of any major religion). Countries such as Nigeria and the Republic of Macedonia are expected to have Muslim majorities by 2050. In India, the Muslim population will be larger than any other country.

Europe's domestic population is set to shrink as opposed to their Islamic population which is set to grow to 10% of Europe's total. According to BBC News, the rates of growth of reveal that the growing number of Muslims is due primarily to immigration and higher. Main article: encompasses the produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily ) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by Muslim populations. It includes fields as varied as architecture,, painting, and, among others.

While not condemned in the Quran, making images of human beings and animals is frowned on in many Islamic cultures and connected with common to all Abrahamic religions, as 'Abdullaah ibn Mas'ood reported that Muhammad said, 'Those who will be most severely punished by Allah on the Day of Resurrection will be the image-makers' (reported by al-Bukhaari, see al-Fath, 10/382). However this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods, and there are examples of paintings of both animals and humans in Mughal, Persian and Turkish art.

The existence of this has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture. The phases of the form the basis for the.

The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen, reportedly by, to be the in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. It is a with days lasting from sunset to sunset. Islamic fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in in different years in the. The most important Islamic festivals are (: عيد الفطر‎) on the 1st of, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and ( عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of, coinciding with the end of the Hajj pilgrimage. Main article: Criticism of Islam has existed since Islam's formative stages. Early criticism came from Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian or a form of idolatry and often explained it in apocalyptic terms. Later there appeared criticism from the itself, and also from writers and from ecclesiastical Christians.

Objects of criticism include the morality of the life of Muhammad, the last law bearing prophet of Islam, both in his public and personal life, as seen in. Issues relating to the authenticity and morality of the Quran, the Islamic holy book, are also discussed by critics.

Other criticisms focus on the question of human rights in modern Islamic nations, and the treatment of women in Islamic law and practice. In wake of the recent trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been. • There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is // or 2 //, and whether the a is pronounced //, // or (when the stress is on the first syllable) // (Merriam Webster). The most common are (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and (American Heritage Dictionary).

• The verse reads: 'It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces towards East or West; but it is righteousness to believe in Allah and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Book and the Messengers; to spend of your substance, out of love for Him, for your kin, for orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for those who ask, and for the ransom of slaves; to be steadfast in prayer, and practice regular charity, to fulfill the contracts which we have made; and to be firm and patient, in pain (or suffering) and adversity, and throughout all periods of panic. Such are the people of truth, the God fearing' Citations. • Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim.

Minneapolis: Bethany House Publishers. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to 'dialogue' on the basis of what both faiths really teach. Islam Without Extremes (1st ed.). Norton & Company.. The Koran Interpreted: A Translation (1st ed.).

• Cragg, Kenneth (1975). The House of Islam, in The Religious Life of Man Series. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1975. • Hourani, Albert (1991). Islam in European Thought. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1992, cop.

Xi, 199 p.; alternative ISBN on back cover, 0-521-42120-0 •; Al-Hilali Khan; Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble Quran (1st ed.).

Dar-us-Salam Publications.. Khanbaghi (2006). The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran. • Khavari, Farid A. Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. Viii, 277 p., ill.

With maps and charts. The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis.

Syracuse University.. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list () • Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers.. • Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press..

• Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery.

Oxford University Press.. • Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002).: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications.. • Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam.

Dar-us-Salam Publications.. • Nigosian, S.

Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices (New ed.). Indiana University Press..

Islam (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press.. What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the '. Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University (1st ed.).

Nova Science Publishers, New York.. The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world. With Almas Heshmati and Hichem Karoui (1st ed.).

Nova Science Publishers, New York.. Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith.

Peter Owen Publishers.. External links.